APPROACH, METHOD, AND TEHNIQUE

What is Curriculum?
In formal education, a curriculum (plural curricula) is the set of courses, and their content, offered at a school or university. As an idea, curriculum stems from the Latin word for race course, referring to the course of deeds and experiences through which children grow and mature in becoming adults.
Curriculum-wikipedia

What's approach?
In brief, a language learning approach refers to theories about the nature of language and language learning that serve as the source of practices and principles in language teaching. A language learning method is an overall plan for presenting language material, based on the selected approach. A language learning technique is a particular strategem or procedure used to accomplish a particular objective.
An approach is a set of theories and principles,a method is the way you apply these theories and priciples ,and a technique is the tools and the tasks you use to make your method succeed.
http://www.sil.org/LinguaLinks/LanguageLearning

other definition:

An approach is a set of assumptions ( Why ) , a method is how to carry out these assumptions and theories ( how ) , techniques are steps to achieve certain goals.

Komponen dan Prinsip Pengembangan Kurikulum

Kurikulum memiliki lima komponen utama, yaitu : (1) tujuan; (2) isi/materi; (3) metode atau strategi pencapain tujuan pembelajaran; (4) organisasi kurikulum dan (5) evaluasi.
Tujuan

Dalam perspektif pendidikan nasional, tujuan pendidikan nasional dapat dilihat secara jelas dalam Undang-Undang Nomor 20 Tahun 2003 tentang Sistem Pendidikan Nasional, bahwa : ” Pendidikan nasional berfungsi mengembangkan kemampuan dan membentuk watak serta peradaban bangsa yang bermartabat dalam rangka mencerdaskan kehidupan bangsa, bertujuan untuk berkembangnya potensi peserta didik agar menjadi manusia yang beriman dan bertakwa kepada Tuhan Yang Maha Esa, berakhlak mulia, sehat, berilmu, cakap, kreatif, mandiri, dan menjadi warga negara yang demokratis serta bertanggung jawab. Dalam Permendiknas No. 22 Tahun 2007 dikemukakan bahwa tujuan pendidikan tingkat satuan pendidikan dasar dan menengah dirumuskan mengacu kepada tujuan umum pendidikan berikut:

• Tujuan pendidikan dasar adalah meletakkan dasar kecerdasan, pengetahuan, kepribadian, akhlak mulia, serta keterampilan untuk hidup mandiri dan mengikuti pendidikan lebih lanjut.
• Tujuan pendidikan menengah adalah meningkatkan kecerdasan, pengetahuan, kepribadian, akhlak mulia, serta keterampilan untuk hidup mandiri dan mengikuti pendidikan lebih lanjut.
• Tujuan pendidikan menengah kejuruan adalah meningkatkan kecerdasan, pengetahuan, kepribadian, akhlak mulia, serta keterampilan untuk hidup mandiri dan mengikuti pendidikan lebih lanjut sesuai dengan kejuruannya.
• Tujuan pendidikan institusional tersebut kemudian dijabarkan lagi ke dalam tujuan kurikuler; yaitu tujuan pendidikan yang ingin dicapai dari setiap mata pelajaran yang dikembangkan di setiap sekolah atau satuan pendidikan.
Tujuan pembelajaran merupakan tujuan pendidikan yang lebih operasional, yang hendak dicapai dari setiap kegiatan pembelajaran dari setiap mata pelajaran. Pada tingkat operasional ini, tujuan pendidikan dirumuskan lebih bersifat spesifik dan lebih menggambarkan tentang “what will the student be able to do as result of the teaching that he was unable to do before” (Rowntree dalam Nana Syaodih Sukmadinata, 1997). Tujuan pendidikan tingkat operasional ini lebih menggambarkan perubahan perilaku spesifik apa yang hendak dicapai peserta didik melalui proses pembelajaran. Merujuk pada pemikiran Bloom, maka perubahan perilaku tersebut meliputi perubahan dalam aspek kognitif, afektif dan psikomotor. Keberhasilan pencapaian tujuan pembelajaran pada tingkat operasional ini akan menentukan terhadap keberhasilan tujuan pendidikan pada tingkat berikutnya. Terlepas dari rangkaian tujuan di atas bahwa perumusan tujuan kurikulum sangat terkait erat dengan filsafat yang melandasinya. Jika kurikulum yang dikembangkan menggunakan dasar filsafat klasik (perenialisme, essensialisme, eksistensialisme) sebagai pijakan utamanya maka tujuan kurikulum lebih banyak diarahkan pada pencapaian penguasaan materi dan cenderung menekankan pada upaya pengembangan aspek intelektual atau aspek kognitif. Apabila kurikulum yang dikembangkan menggunakan filsafat progresivisme sebagai pijakan utamanya, maka tujuan pendidikan lebih diarahkan pada proses pengembangan dan aktualisasi diri peserta didik dan lebih berorientasi pada upaya pengembangan aspek afektif. Pengembangan kurikulum dengan menggunakan filsafat rekonsktruktivisme sebagai dasar utamanya, maka tujuan pendidikan banyak diarahkan pada upaya pemecahan masalah sosial yang krusial dan kemampuan bekerja sama. Sementara kurikulum yang dikembangkan dengan menggunakan dasar filosofi teknologi pendidikan dan teori pendidikan teknologis, maka tujuan pendidikan lebih diarahkan pada pencapaian kompetensi.
Isi / Materi Pembelajaran
Dalam menentukan materi pembelajaran atau bahan ajar tidak lepas dari filsafat dan teori pendidikan dikembangkan. Seperti telah dikemukakan di atas bahwa pengembangan kurikulum yang didasari filsafat klasik (perenialisme, essensialisme, eksistensialisme) penguasaan materi pembelajaran menjadi hal yang utama. Dalam hal ini, materi pembelajaran disusun secara logis dan sistematis, dalam bentuk :
• Teori; seperangkat konstruk atau konsep, definisi atau preposisi yang saling berhubungan, yang menyajikan pendapat sistematik tentang gejala dengan menspesifikasi hubungan – hubungan antara variabel-variabel dengan maksud menjelaskan dan meramalkan gejala tersebut.
• Konsep; suatu abstraksi yang dibentuk oleh organisasi dari kekhususan-kekhususan, merupakan definisi singkat dari sekelompok fakta atau gejala.
• Generalisasi; kesimpulan umum berdasarkan hal-hal yang khusus, bersumber dari analisis, pendapat atau pembuktian dalam penelitian.
• Prinsip; yaitu ide utama, pola skema yang ada dalam materi yang mengembangkan hubungan antara beberapa konsep.
• Prosedur; yaitu seri langkah-langkah yang berurutan dalam materi pelajaran yang harus dilakukan peserta didik.
• Fakta; sejumlah informasi khusus dalam materi yang dianggap penting, terdiri dari terminologi, orang dan tempat serta kejadian.
• Istilah, kata-kata perbendaharaan yang baru dan khusus yang diperkenalkan dalam materi.
• Contoh/ilustrasi, yaitu hal atau tindakan atau proses yang bertujuan untuk memperjelas suatu uraian atau pendapat.
• Definisi:yaitu penjelasan tentang makna atau pengertian tentang suatu hal/kata dalam garis besarnya.
• Preposisi, yaitu cara yang digunakan untuk menyampaikan materi pelajaran dalam upaya mencapai tujuan kurikulum.
Materi pembelajaran yang didasarkan pada filsafat progresivisme lebih memperhatikan tentang kebutuhan, minat, dan kehidupan peserta didik. Materi pembelajaran yang didasarkan pada filsafat konstruktivisme, materi pembelajaran dikemas sedemikian rupa dalam bentuk tema-tema dan topik-topik yang diangkat dari masalah-masalah sosial yang krusial, misalnya tentang ekonomi, sosial bahkan tentang alam. Materi pembelajaran yang berlandaskan pada teknologi pendidikan banyak diambil dari disiplin ilmu, tetapi telah diramu sedemikian rupa dan diambil hal-hal yang esensialnya saja untuk mendukung penguasaan suatu kompetensi.
Terlepas dari filsafat yang mendasari pengembangan materi, Nana Syaodih Sukamadinata (1997) mengetengahkan tentang sekuens susunan materi pembelajaran, yaitu :
• Sekuens kronologis; susunan materi pembelajaran yang mengandung urutan waktu.
• Sekuens kausal; susunan materi pembelajaran yang mengandung hubungan sebab-akibat.
• Sekuens struktural; susunan materi pembelajaran yang mengandung struktur materi.
• Sekuens logis dan psikologis; sekuensi logis merupakan susunan materi pembelajaran dimulai dari bagian menuju pada keseluruhan, dari yang sederhana menuju kepada yang kompleks. Sedangkan sekuens psikologis sebaliknya dari keseluruhan menuju bagian-bagian, dan dari yang kompleks menuju yang sederhana. Menurut sekuens logis materi pembelajaran disusun dari nyata ke abstrak, dari benda ke teori, dari fungsi ke struktur, dari masalah bagaimana ke masalah mengapa.
• Sekuens spiral ; susunan materi pembelajaran yang dipusatkan pada topik atau bahan tertentu yang populer dan sederhana, kemudian dikembangkan, diperdalam dan diperluas dengan bahan yang lebih kompleks.
• Sekuens rangkaian ke belakang; dalam sekuens ini mengajar dimulai dengan langkah akhir dan mundur kebelakang. Contoh pemecahan masalah yang bersifat ilmiah, meliputi 5 langkah sebagai berikut : (a) pembatasan masalah; (b) penyusunan hipotesis; (c) pengumpulan data; (d) pengujian hipotesis; dan (e) interpretasi hasil tes.
• Dalam mengajarnya, guru memulai dengan langkah (a) sampai (d), dan peserta didik diminta untuk membuat interprestasi hasilnya (e). Pada kasempatan lain guru menyajikan data tentang masalah lain dari langkah (a) sampai (c) dan peserta didik diminta untuk mengadakan pengetesan hipotesis (d) dan seterusnya.
• Sekuens berdasarkan hierarki belajar; prosedur pembelajaran dimulai menganalisis tujuan-tujuan yang ingin dicapai, kemudian dicari suatu hierarki urutan materi pembelajaran untuk mencapai tujuan atau kompetensi tersebut. Hierarki tersebut menggambarkan urutan perilaku apa yang mula-mula harus dikuasai peserta didik, berturut-berturut sampai dengan perilaku terakhir.
Metode atau strategi pencapain tujuan
Metode dan teknik pembelajaran yang digunakan pada umumnya bersifat penyajian (ekspositorik) secara massal, seperti ceramah atau seminar. Selain itu, pembelajaran cenderung lebih bersifat tekstual. Strategi pembelajaran yang berorientasi pada guru tersebut menurut kalangan progresivisme, yang seharusnya aktif dalam suatu proses pembelajaran adalah peserta didik itu sendiri. Pembelajaran yang berpusat pada peserta didik mendapat dukungan dari kalangan rekonstruktivisme yang menekankan pentingnya proses pembelajaran melalui dinamika kelompok. Pembelajaran cenderung bersifat kontekstual, metode dan teknik pembelajaran yang digunakan tidak lagi dalam bentuk penyajian dari guru tetapi lebih bersifat individual, langsung, dan memanfaatkan proses dinamika kelompok (kooperatif), seperti : pembelajaran moduler, obeservasi, simulasi atau role playing, diskusi, dan sejenisnya.
Organisasi Kurikulum
Setidaknya terdapat enam ragam pengorganisasian kurikulum, yaitu:
• Mata pelajaran terpisah (isolated subject); kurikulum terdiri dari sejumlah mata pelajaran yang terpisah-pisah, yang diajarkan sendiri-sendiri tanpa ada hubungan dengan mata pelajaran lainnya. Masing-masing diberikan pada waktu tertentu dan tidak mempertimbangkan minat, kebutuhan, dan kemampuan peserta didik, semua materi diberikan sama
• Mata pelajaran berkorelasi; korelasi diadakan sebagai upaya untuk mengurangi kelemahan-kelemahan sebagai akibat pemisahan mata pelajaran. Prosedur yang ditempuh adalah menyampaikan pokok-pokok yang saling berkorelasi guna memudahkan peserta didik memahami pelajaran tertentu.
• Bidang studi (broad field); yaitu organisasi kurikulum yang berupa pengumpulan beberapa mata pelajaran yang sejenis serta memiliki ciri-ciri yang sama dan dikorelasikan (difungsikan) dalam satu bidang pengajaran. Salah satu mata pelajaran dapat dijadikan “core subject”, dan mata pelajaran lainnya dikorelasikan dengan core tersebut.
• Program yang berpusat pada anak (child centered), yaitu program kurikulum yang menitikberatkan pada kegiatan-kegiatan peserta didik, bukan pada mata pelajaran.
• Inti Masalah (core program), yaitu suatu program yang berupa unit-unit masalah, dimana masalah-masalah diambil dari suatu mata pelajaran tertentu, dan mata pelajaran lainnya diberikan melalui kegiatan-kegiatan belajar dalam upaya memecahkan masalahnya. Mata pelajaran-mata pelajaran yang menjadi pisau analisisnya diberikan secara terintegrasi.
• Ecletic Program, yaitu suatu program yang mencari keseimbangan antara organisasi kurikulum yang terpusat pada mata pelajaran dan peserta didik.
Evaluasi
Dalam pengertian terbatas, evaluasi kurikulum dimaksudkan untuk memeriksa tingkat ketercapaian tujuan-tujuan pendidikan yang ingin diwujudkan melalui kurikulum yang bersangkutan. Sedangkan dalam pengertian yang lebih luas, evaluasi kurikulum dimaksudkan untuk memeriksa kinerja kurikulum secara keseluruhan ditinjau dari berbagai kriteria. Indikator kinerja yang dievaluasi tidak hanya terbatas pada efektivitas saja, namun juga relevansi, efisiensi, kelaikan (feasibility) program. Evaluasi kurikulum memegang peranan penting, baik untuk penentuan kebijakan pendidikan pada umumnya maupun untuk pengambilan keputusan dalam kurikulum itu sendiri. Hasil-hasil evaluasi kurikulum dapat digunakan oleh para pemegang kebijakan pendidikan dan para pengembang kurikulum dalam memilih dan menetapkan kebijakan pengembangan sistem pendidikan dan pengembangan model kurikulum yang digunakan. Hasil – hasil evaluasi kurikulum juga dapat digunakan oleh guru-guru, kepala sekolah dan para pelaksana pendidikan lainnya dalam memahami dan membantu perkembangan peserta didik, memilih bahan pelajaran, memilih metode dan alat-alat bantu pelajaran, cara penilaian serta fasilitas pendidikan lainnya. (disarikan dari Nana Syaodih Sukmadinata, 1997) Selanjutnya, Nana Syaodih Sukmadinata (1997) mengemukakan tiga pendekatan dalam evaluasi kurikulum, yaitu : (1) pendekatan penelitian (analisis komparatif); (2) pendekatan obyektif; dan (3) pendekatan campuran multivariasi.

Prinsip-prinsip pengembangan kurikulum
Nana Syaodih Sukmadinata (1997) mengetengahkan prinsip-prinsip pengembangan kurikulum yang dibagi ke dalam dua kelompok :
• prinsip - prinsip umum : relevansi, fleksibilitas, kontinuitas, praktis, dan efektivitas;
• prinsip-prinsip khusus : prinsip berkenaan dengan tujuan pendidikan, prinsip berkenaan dengan pemilihan isi pendidikan, prinsip berkenaan dengan pemilihan proses belajar mengajar, prinsip berkenaan dengan pemilihan media dan alat pelajaran, dan prinsip berkenaan dengan pemilihan kegiatan penilaian.

Sedangkan Asep Herry Hernawan dkk (2002) mengemukakan lima prinsip dalam pengembangan kurikulum, yaitu :
• Prinsip relevansi; secara internal bahwa kurikulum memiliki relevansi di antara komponen-komponen kurikulum (tujuan, bahan, strategi, organisasi dan evaluasi). Sedangkan secara eksternal bahwa komponen-komponen tersebut memiliki relevansi dengan tuntutan ilmu pengetahuan dan teknologi (relevansi epistomologis), tuntutan dan potensi peserta didik (relevansi psikologis) serta tuntutan dan kebutuhan perkembangan masyarakat (relevansi sosilogis).
• Prinsip fleksibilitas; dalam pengembangan kurikulum mengusahakan agar yang dihasilkan memiliki sifat luwes, lentur dan fleksibel dalam pelaksanaannya, memungkinkan terjadinya penyesuaian-penyesuaian berdasarkan situasi dan kondisi tempat dan waktu yang selalu berkembang, serta kemampuan dan latar bekang peserta didik.
• Prinsip kontinuitas; yakni adanya kesinambungan dalam kurikulum, baik secara vertikal, maupun secara horizontal. Pengalaman-pengalaman belajar yang disediakan kurikulum harus memperhatikan kesinambungan, baik yang di dalam tingkat kelas, antar jenjang pendidikan, maupun antara jenjang pendidikan dengan jenis pekerjaan.
• Prinsip efisiensi; yakni mengusahakan agar dalam pengembangan kurikulum dapat mendayagunakan waktu, biaya, dan sumber-sumber lain yang ada secara optimal, cermat dan tepat sehingga hasilnya memadai.
• Prinsip efektivitas; yakni mengusahakan agar kegiatan pengembangan kurikulum mencapai tujuan tanpa kegiatan yang mubazir, baik secara kualitas maupun kuantitas.
Terkait dengan pengembangan Kurikulum Tingkat Satuan Pendidikan, terdapat sejumlah prinsip-prinsip yang harus dipenuhi, yaitu :
• Berpusat pada potensi, perkembangan, kebutuhan, dan kepentingan peserta didik dan lingkungannya. Kurikulum dikembangkan berdasarkan prinsip bahwa peserta didik memiliki posisi sentral untuk mengembangkan kompetensinya agar menjadi manusia yang beriman dan bertakwa kepada Tuhan Yang Maha Esa, berakhlak mulia, sehat, berilmu, cakap, kreatif, mandiri dan menjadi warga negara yang demokratis serta bertanggung jawab. Untuk mendukung pencapaian tujuan tersebut pengembangan kompetensi peserta didik disesuaikan dengan potensi, perkembangan, kebutuhan, dan kepentingan peserta didik serta tuntutan lingkungan.
• Kurikulum dikembangkan dengan memperhatikan keragaman karakteristik peserta didik, kondisi daerah, dan jenjang serta jenis pendidikan, tanpa membedakan agama, suku, budaya dan adat istiadat, serta status sosial ekonomi dan gender. Kurikulum meliputi substansi komponen muatan wajib kurikulum, muatan lokal, dan pengembangan diri secara terpadu, serta disusun dalam keterkaitan dan kesinambungan yang bermakna dan tepat antarsubstansi.
• Tanggap terhadap perkembangan ilmu pengetahuan, teknologi, dan seni. Kurikulum dikembangkan atas dasar kesadaran bahwa ilmu pengetahuan, teknologi dan seni berkembang secara dinamis, dan oleh karena itu semangat dan isi kurikulum mendorong peserta didik untuk mengikuti dan memanfaatkan secara tepat perkembangan ilmu pengetahuan, teknologi, dan seni.
• Relevan dengan kebutuhan kehidupan. Pengembangan kurikulum dilakukan dengan melibatkan pemangku kepentingan (stakeholders) untuk menjamin relevansi pendidikan dengan kebutuhan kehidupan, termasuk di dalamnya kehidupan kemasyarakatan, dunia usaha dan dunia kerja. Oleh karena itu, pengembangan keterampilan pribadi, keterampilan berpikir, keterampilan sosial, keterampilan akademik, dan keterampilan vokasional merupakan keniscayaan.
• Menyeluruh dan berkesinambungan. Substansi kurikulum mencakup keseluruhan dimensi kompetensi, bidang kajian keilmuan dan mata pelajaran yang direncanakan dan disajikan secara berkesinambungan antarsemua jenjang pendidikan.
• Belajar sepanjang hayat. Kurikulum diarahkan kepada proses pengembangan, pembudayaan dan pemberdayaan peserta didik yang berlangsung sepanjang hayat. Kurikulum mencerminkan keterkaitan antara unsur-unsur pendidikan formal, nonformal dan informal, dengan memperhatikan kondisi dan tuntutan lingkungan yang selalu berkembang serta arah pengembangan manusia seutuhnya.
• Seimbang antara kepentingan nasional dan kepentingan daerah. Kurikulum dikembangkan dengan memperhatikan kepentingan nasional dan kepentingan daerah untuk membangun kehidupan bermasyarakat, berbangsa dan bernegara. Kepentingan nasional dan kepentingan daerah harus saling mengisi dan memberdayakan sejalan dengan motto Bhineka Tunggal Ika dalam kerangka Negara Kesatuan Republik Indonesia.

Prinsip-Prinsip Khusus Pengembangan Kurikulum
• Prinsip berkenaan dengan tujuan pendidikan
Ketentuan/kebijakan pemerintahü
Survey persepsi orang tuaü
Survey pandangan para ahliü
Pengalaman negara lainü
penelitianü
• Prinsip berkenaan dengan pemilihan isi pendidikan
Penjabaran tujuan ke dalam bentuk pengalaman belajar yang diharapkanü
Isi meliputi pengetahuan, sikap, dan keterampilanü
Disusun berdasarkan urutan logis dan sistematisü
• Prinsip berkenaan dengan pemilihan proses belajar mengajar
Keselarasan pemilihan metodeü
Memperhatikan perbedaan individualü
Pencapaian aspek kognitif, afektif, skillsü
• Prinsip berkenaan dengan pemilihan media
Ketersediaan alat yang sesuai dengan situasiü
Pengorganisasian alat dan bahanü
Pengintegrasian ke dalam prosesü
• Prinsip berkenaan dengan pemilihan kegiatan penilaian
Kesesuaian dengan isi dan tingkat perkembangan siswaü
Waktuü
Administrasi penilaianü

METHODS OF TEACHING FOREIGN LANGUAGES

Language education may take place as a general school subject or in a specialized language school. There are many methods of teaching languages. Some have fallen into relative obscurity and others are widely used; still others have a small following, but offer useful insights.

While sometimes confused, the terms "approach", "method" and "technique" are hierarchical concepts. An approach is a set of correlative assumptions about the nature of language and language learning, but does not involve procedure or provide any details about how such assumptions should translate into the classroom setting. Such can be related to second language acquisition theory.

There are three principal views at this level:

1. The structural view treats language as a system of structurally related elements to code meaning (e.g. grammar).

2. The functional view sees language as a vehicle to express or accomplish a certain function, such as requesting something.

3. The interactive view sees language as a vehicle for the creation and maintenance of social relations, focusing on patterns of moves, acts, negotiation and interaction found in conversational exchanges. This view has been fairly dominant since the 1980s.^[1]

A method is a plan for presenting the language material to be learned and should be based upon a selected approach. In order for an approach to be translated into a method, an instructional system must be designed considering the objectives of the teaching/learning, how the content is to be selected and organized, the types of tasks to be performed, the roles of students and the roles of teachers. A technique is a very specific, concrete stratagem or trick designed to accomplish an immediate objective. Such are derived from the controlling method, and less-directly, with the approach.^[1]

The grammar translation method

The grammar translation method instructs students in grammar, and provides vocabulary with direct translations to memorize. It was the predominant method in Europe in the 19th century. Most instructors now acknowledge that this method is ineffective by itself^{[citation needed]}. It is now most commonly used in the traditional instruction of the classical languages.

At school, the teaching of grammar consists of a process of training in the rules of a language which must make it possible to all the students to correctly express their opinion, to understand the remarks which are addressed to them and to analyze the texts which they read. The objective is that by the time they leave college, the pupil controls the tools of the language which are the vocabulary, grammar and the orthography, to be able to read, understand and write texts in various contexts. The teaching of grammar examines the texts, and develops awareness that language constitutes a system which can be analyzed. For example, many Spanish teachers like to use "La Gran Aventura de Alejandro" to teach their students, because while many young Spanish natives would find the book simple to read, the average person learning Spanish would find it ideal. This knowledge is acquired gradually, by traversing the facts of language and the syntactic mechanisms, going from simplest to the most complex. The exercises according to the program of the course must untiringly be practiced to allow the assimilation of the rules stated in the course.^{[citation needed]} That supposes that the teacher corrects the exercises. The pupil can follow his progress in practicing the language by comparing his results. Thus can he adapt the grammatical rules and control little by little the internal logic of the syntactic system. The grammatical analysis of sentences constitutes the objective of the teaching of grammar at the school. Its practice makes it possible to recognize a text as a coherent whole and conditions the training of a foreign language. Grammatical terminology serves this objective. Grammar makes it possible for each one to understand how the mother tongue functions, in order to give him the capacity to communicate its thought.

The direct method

The direct method, sometimes also called natural method, is a method that refrains from using the learners' native language and just uses the target language. It was established in Germany and France around 1900 and are best represented by the methods devised by Berlitz and de Sauzé although neither claim originality and has been re-invented under other names.^[2] The direct method operates on the idea that second language learning must be an imitation of first language learning, as this is the natural way humans learn any language - a child never relies on another language to learn its first language, and thus the mother tongue is not necessary to learn a foreign language. This method places great stress on correct pronunciation and the target language from outset. It advocates teaching of oral skills at the expense of every traditional aim of language teaching. Such methods rely on directly representing an experience into a linguistic construct rather than relying on abstractions like mimicry, translation and memorizing grammar rules and vocabulary.^[2]

According to this method, printed language and text must be kept away from second language learner for as long as possible, just as a first language learner does not use printed word until he has good grasp of speech. Learning of writing and spelling should be delayed until after the printed word has been introduced, and grammar and translation should also be avoided because this would involve the application of the learner's first language. All above items must be avoided because they hinder the acquisition of a good oral proficiency.

The method relies on a step-by-step progression based on question-and-answer sessions which begin with naming common objects such as doors, pencils, floors, etc. It provides a motivating start as the learner begins using a foreign language almost immediately. Lessons progress to verb forms and other grammatical structures with the goal of learning about thirty new words per lesson.^[2]

The series method

In the 19th century, Francois Gouin went to Hamburg to learn German. Based on his experience as a Latin teacher, he thought the best way to do this would be memorize a German grammar book and a table of its 248 irregular verbs. However, when he went to the academy to test his new language skills, he was disappointed to find out that he could not understand anything. Trying again, he similarly memorized the 800 root words of the language as well as re-memorizing the grammar and verb forms. However, the results were the same. During this time, he had isolated himself from people around him, so he tried to learn by listening, imitating and conversing with the Germans around him, but found that his carefully-constructed sentences often caused native German speakers to laugh. Again he tried a more classical approach, translation, and even memorizing the entire dictionary but had no better luck.^[2]

When he returned home, he found that his three-year-old nephew had learned to speak French. He noticed the boy was very curious and upon his first visit to a mill, he wanted to see everything and be told the name of everything. After digesting the experience silently, he then reenacted his experiences in play, talking about what he learned to whoever would listen or to himself. Gouin decided that language learning was a matter of transforming perceptions into conceptions, using language to represent what one experiences. Language is not an arbitrary set of conventions but a way of thinking and representing the world to oneself. It is not a conditioning process, but one in which the learner actively organizes his perceptions into linguistics concepts.^[2]

Variation of direct method

The series method is a variety of the direct method (above) in that experiences are directly connected to the target language. Gouin felt that such direct "translation" of experience into words, makes for a "living language". (p59) Gouin also noticed that children organize concepts in succession of time, relating a sequence of concepts in the same order. Gouin's method is based on arranging concepts in series. Gouin suggested that students learn a language more quickly and retain it better if it is presented through a chronological sequence of events. Students learn sentences based on an action such as leaving a house in the order in which such would be performed. Gouin found that if the series of sentences are shuffled, their memorization becomes nearly impossible. For this, Gouin preceded psycholinguistic theory of the 20th century. He found that people will memorize events in a logical sequence, even if they are not presented in that order. He also discovered a second insight into memory called "incubation". Linguistic concepts take time to settle in the memory. The learner must use the new concepts frequently after presentation, either by thinking or by speaking, in order to master them. His last crucial observation was that language was learned in sentences with the verb as the most crucial component. Gouin would write a series in two columns: one with the complete sentences and the other with only the verb. With only the verb elements visible, he would have students recite the sequence of actions in full sentences of no more than twenty-five sentences. Another exercise involved having the teacher solicit a sequence of sentences by basically ask him/her what s/he would do next. While Gouin believed that language was rule-governed, he did not believe it should be explicitly taught.^[2]

His course was organized on elements of human society and the natural world. He estimated that a language could be learned with 800 to 900 hours of instruction over a series of 4000 exercises and no homework. The idea was that each of the exercises would force the student to think about the vocabulary in terms of its relationship with the natural world. While there is evidence that the method can work extremely well, it has some serious flaws. One of which is the teaching of subjective language, where the students must make judgments about what is experienced in the world (e.g. "bad" and "good") as such do not relate easily to one single common experience. However, the real weakness is that the method is entirely based on one experience of a three-year-old. Gouin did not observe the child's earlier language development such as naming (where only nouns are learned) or the role that stories have in human language development. What distinguishes the series method from the direct method is that vocabulary must be learned by translation from the native language, at least in the beginning.^[2]

The oral approach / situational language teaching

This approach was developed from the 1930s to the 1960s by British applied linguists such as Harold Palmer and A.S. Hornsby. They were familiar with the Direct method as well as the work of 19th century applied linguists such as Otto Jesperson and Daniel Jones but attempted to develop a scientifically-founded approach to teaching English than was evidence by the Direct Method.^[1]

A number of large-scale investigations about language learning and the increased emphasis on reading skills in the 1920s led to the notion of "vocabulary control". It was discovered that languages have a core basic vocabulary of about 2,000 words that occurred frequently in written texts, and it was assumed that mastery of these would greatly aid reading comprehension. Parallel to this was the notion of "grammar control", emphasizing the sentence patterns most-commonly found in spoken conversation. Such patterns were incorporated into dictionaries and handbooks for students. The principle difference between the oral approach and the direct method was that methods devised under this approach would have theoretical principles guiding the selection of content, gradation of difficulty of exercises and the presentation of such material and exercises. The main proposed benefit was that such theoretically-based organization of content would result in a less-confusing sequence of learning events with better contextualization of the vocabulary and grammatical patterns presented.^[1] Last but not least, all language points were to be presented in "situations". Emphasis on this point led to the approach's second name. Such learning in situ would lead to students' acquiring good habits to be repeated in their corresponding situations. Teaching methods stress PPP (presentation (introduction of new material in context), practice (a controlled practice phase) and production (activities designed for less-controlled practice)).^[1]

Although this approach is all but unknown among language teachers today, elements of it have had long lasting effects on language teaching, being the basis of many widely-used English as a Second/Foreign Language textbooks as late as the 1980s and elements of it still appear in current texts.^[1] Many of the structural elements of this approach were called into question in the 1960s, causing modifications of this method that lead to Communicative language teaching. However, its emphasis on oral practice, grammar and sentence patterns still finds widespread support among language teachers and remains popular in countries where foreign language syllabuses are still heavily based on grammar.^[1]

The audio-lingual method

The audio-lingual method was developed due to the U.S.'s entry into World War II. The government suddenly needed people who could carry on conversations fluently in a variety of languages such as German, French, Italian, Chinese, Malay, etc., and could work as interpreters, code-room assistants, and translators. However, since foreign language instruction in that country was heavily focused on reading instruction, no textbooks, other materials or courses existed at the time, so new methods and materials had to be devised. The Army Specialized Training Program created intensive programs based on the techniques Leonard Bloomfield and other linguists devised for Native American languages, where students interacted intensively with native speakers and a linguist in guided conversations designed to decode its basic grammar and learn the vocabulary. This "informant method" had great success with its small class sizes and motivated learners.^[1]

The Army Specialized Training Program only lasted a few years, but it gained a lot of attention from the popular press and the academic community. Charles Fries set up the first English Language Institute at the University of Michigan, to train English as a second or foreign language teachers. Similar programs were created later at Georgetown University, University of Texas among others based on the methods and techniques used by the military. The developing method had much in common with the British oral approach although the two developed independently. The main difference was the developing audio-lingual methods allegiance to structural linguistics, focusing on grammar and contrastive analysis to find differences between the student's native language and the target language in order to prepare specific materials to address potential problems. These materials strongly emphasized drill as a way to avoid or eliminate these problems.^[1]

This first version of the method was originally called the oral method, the aural-oral method or the structural approach. The audio-lingual method truly began to take shape near the end of the 1950s, this time due government pressure resulting from the space race. Courses and techniques were redesigned to add insights from behaviorist psychology to the structural linguistics and constructive analysis already being used. Under this method, students listen to or view recordings of language models acting in situations. Students practice with a variety of drills, and the instructor emphasizes the use of the target language at all times. The idea is that by reinforcing 'correct' behaviors, students will make them into habits.^[1]

Due to weaknesses in performance^[3], and more importantly because of Noam Chomsky's theoretical attack on language learning as a set of habits, audio-lingual methods are rarely the primary method of instruction today. However, elements of the method still survive in many textbooks.^[1]

Communicative language teaching

Communicative language teaching (CLT) is an approach to the teaching of languages that emphasizes interaction as both the means and the ultimate goal of learning a language. Despite a number of criticisms^[4] it continues to be popular, particularly in Europe, where constructivist views on language learning and education in general dominate academic discourse.

In recent years, Task-based language learning (TBLL), also known as task-based language teaching (TBLT) or task-based instruction (TBI), has grown steadily in popularity. TBLL is a further refinement of the CLT approach, emphasizing the successful completion of tasks as both the organizing feature and the basis for assessment of language instruction. Dogme language teaching shares a philosophy with TBL, although differs in approach.^[5] Dogme is a communicative approach to language teaching and encourages teaching without published textbooks and instead focusing on conversational communication among the learners and the teacher.^[6]

Language immersion

Language immersion puts students in a situation where they must use a foreign language, whether or not they know it. This creates fluency, but not accuracy of usage. French-language immersion programs are common in Canada in the provincial school systems, as part of the drive towards bilingualism.

Minimalist/methodist

Paul Rowe's minimalist/methodist approach. This new approach is underpinned with Paul Nation's three actions of successful ESL teachers.^{[citation needed]} Initially it was written specifically for unqualified, inexperienced people teaching in EFL situations. However, experienced language teachers are also responding positively to its simplicity. Language items are usually provided using flashcards. There is a focus on language-in-context and multi-functional practices.

Directed practice

Directed practice has students repeat phrases. This method is used by U.S. diplomatic courses. It can quickly provide a phrasebook-type knowledge of the language. Within these limits, the student's usage is accurate and precise. However the student's choice of what to say is not flexible.

Learning by teaching (LdL)

Learning by teaching is a widespread method in Germany, developed by Jean-Pol Martin. The students take the teacher's role and teach their peers.

Proprioceptive language learning method

The Proprioceptive language learning method (commonly called the Feedback training method) emphasizes simultaneous development of cognitive, motor, neurological, and hearing as all being part of a comprehensive language learning process. Lesson development is as concerned with the training of the motor and neurological functions of speech as it is with cognitive (memory) functions. It further emphasizes that training of each part of the speech process must be simultaneous. The Proprioceptive Method, therefore, emphasizes spoken language training, and is primarily used by those wanting to perfect their speaking ability in a target language.

The Proprioceptive Method virtually stands alone as a Second Language Acquisition (SLA) method in that it bases its methodology on a speech pathology model. It stresses that mere knowledge (in the form of vocabulary and grammar memory) is not the sole requirement for spoken language fluency, but that the mind receives real-time feedback from both hearing and neurological receptors of the mouth and related organs in order to constantly regulate the store of vocabulary and grammar memory in the mind during speech.

For optimum effectiveness, it maintains that each of the components of second language acquisition must be encountered simultaneously. It therefore advocates that all memory functions, all motor functions and their neurological receptors, and all feedback from both the mouth and ears must occur at exactly the same moment in time of the instruction. Thus, according to the Proprioceptive Method, all student participation must be done at full speaking volume. Further, in order to train memory, after initial acquaintance with the sentences being repeated, all verbal language drills must be done as a response to the narrated sentences which the student must repeat (or answer) entirely apart from reading a text.^[7]

Silent Way

The Silent Way^[8] is a discovery learning approach, invented by Caleb Gattegno in the 1950s. It is often considered to be one of the humanistic approaches. It is called The Silent Way because the teacher is usually silent, leaving room for the students to talk and explore the language. The students are responsible for their own learning and are encouraged to interact with one another. The role of the teacher is to give clues to the students, not to model the language.

Pimsleur method

Pimsleur language learning system is based on the research of and model programs developed by American language teacher Paul Pimsleur. It involves recorded 30-minute lessons to be done daily, with each lesson typically featuring a dialog, revision, and new material. Students are asked to translate phrases into the target language, and occasionally to respond in the target language to lines spoken in the target language. The instruction starts in the student's language but gradually changes to the target language. Several all-audio programs now exist to teach various languages using the Pimsleur Method. The syllabus is the same in all languages.

Michel Thomas Method

Michel Thomas Method is an audio-based teaching system developed by Michel Thomas, a language teacher in the USA. It was originally done in person, although since his death it is done via recorded lessons. The instruction is done entirely in the student's own language, although the student's responses are always expected to be in the target language. The method focuses on constructing long sentences with correct grammar and building student confidence. There is no listening practice, and there is no reading or writing. The syllabus is ordered around the easiest and most useful features of the language, and as such is different for each language.^[9]

References

^ ^{a b c d e f g h i j k l m n} Richards, Jack C.; Theodore S. Rodgers (2001). Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching. Cambridge UK: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-00843-3.

^ ^{a b c d e f g h i j} Diller, Karl Conrad (1978). The Language Teaching Controversy. Rowley, Massachusetts: Newbury House. ISBN 912066-22-9.

^ Universiteit Antwerpen James L. Barker lecture on November 8, 2001 at Brigham Young University, given by Wilfried Decoo.

^ van Hattum, Ton (2006), The Communicative Approach Rethought

^ Meddings, L and Thornbury, S (2009) Teaching Unplugged: Dogme in English Language Teaching. Peaslake: Delta.

^ Luke, Meddings (2004-03-26). "Throw away your textbooks". The Guardian. http://www.guardian.co.uk/education/2004/mar/26/tefl.lukemeddings. Retrieved 2009-06-22.

^ "Learning Spoken English, page 12-13". public domain. http://www.fspu.uitm.edu.my/images/stories/File/learning%20spoken%20english.pdf.

^ Online articles on the Silent Way

^ Michel Thomas: The Learning Revolution, by Jonathan Solity.